tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-15242526287911353702024-03-08T00:52:26.946-08:00Dokter Gigi KuMizz Thinkinghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01153482142006250238noreply@blogger.comBlogger4125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1524252628791135370.post-64537988281017345552011-04-02T20:46:00.001-07:002011-04-02T20:51:04.528-07:00neuropatik pain / nyeri neuropatik dan intensitas nyeri<m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent> </m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac><br />
<div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: left;"><span lang="IN">Nyeri neuropatik</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Definisi </span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span class="fullpost"><span lang="IN">Nyeri neuropatik yang didefinisikan sebagai nyeri akibat lesi jaringan saraf baik perifer maupun sentral bisa diakibatkan oleh beberapa penyebab seperti amputasi, toksis (akibat khemoterapi) metabolik (diabetik neuropati) atau juga infeksi misalnya herpes zoster pada neuralgia pasca herpes dan lain-lain.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Nyeri neuropatik adalah nyeri yang terjadi akibat kerusakan saraf atau sumsum tulang belakang yang memberikan rasa panas seperti terbakar (Dysaesthetic).<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Prof. Dr. Boediwarsono, SpPD-KHOM, PGD.Pall.Med (ECU)Divisi Hematologi -Onkologi Medik Bagian-SMF Ilmu Penyakit Dalam FK Unair – RSU Dr. Soetomo Surabaya</span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span class="fullpost"><span lang="IN">Nyeri neuropati merupakan nyeri yang dikarenakan adanya lesi pada sistem saraf perifer maupun pusat. Nyeri ini bersifat kronik dan mengakibatkan penurunan kualitas hidup penderita. Nyeri neuropati melibatkan gangguan neuronal fungsional dimana saraf perifer atau sentral terlibat dan menimbulkan nyeri khas bersifat epikritik (tajam dan menyetrum) yg ditimbulkan oleh serabut Aδ yg rusak, atau protopatik seperti disestesia, rasa terbakar, parestesia dengan lokalisasi tak jelas yang disebabkan oleh serabut C yang abnormal. Gejala-gejala ini biasa disertai dengan defisit neurologik atau gangguan fungsi local</span></span><span class="fullpost">.</span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span lang="IN">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span class="fullpost"><span lang="IN">ETIOLOGI</span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Nyeri neuropatik disebabkan oleh suatu kelainan di sepanjang suatu jalur saraf. <br />
Suatu kelainan akan mengganggu sinyal saraf, yang kemudian akan diartikan secara salah oleh otak</span><span lang="IN">. </span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">MACAM-MACAM PENYEBAB NYERI NEUROPATIK</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: left;">terdapat dua bentuk nyeri neuropatik yaitu yang perifer dan sentral. Sebagai penyebab dari nyeri neuropatik perifer adalah trauma (surgery, nerve entrapment, amputation), Metabolic disturbances (diabetes mellitus, uremia), Infection (herpes zoster, HIV), Toxins (chemotherapeutic agents, alcohol),Vascular disorders (lupus erythematosus, polyarteitis nodosa), Nutritional deficiencies(niacin, thiamine, pyridoxine) dan Direct effects of cancer (metastasis, infiltrative) .Sebagai penyebab nyeri neuropatik sentral ialah stroke, spinal cord lessions, multiple sclerosis dan CNS tumors.</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Nyeri neuropatik dapat timbul dari kondisi yang mempengaruhi sistem saraf tepi atau pusat. Gangguan pada otak dan korda spinalis, seperti multiple sclerosis, stroke, dan spondilitis atau mielopati post traumatik, dapat menyebabkan nyeri neuropatik. Gangguan sistem saraf tepi yang terlibat dalam proses nyeri neuropatik termasuk penyakit pada saraf spinalis, ganglia dorsalis, dan saraf tepi. Kerusakan pada pada saraf tepi yang dihubungkan dengan amputasi, radikulopati, carpal tunnel syndrome, dan sindrom neuropati jebakan lainnya, dapat menimbulkan nyeri neuropatik. Aktivasi nervus simpatetik yang abnormal, pelepasan katekolamin, dan aktivasi free nerve endings atau neuroma dapat menimbulkan sympathetically mediated pain. Nyeri neuropatik juga dapat dihubungkan dengan penyakit infeksius, yang paling sering adalah HIV. Cytomegalovirus, yang sering ada pada penderita HIV, juga dapat menyebabkan low back pain, radicular pain, dan mielopati. Nyeri neuropati adalah hal yang paling sering dan penting dalam morbiditas pasien kanker. Nyeri pada pasien kanker dapat timbul dari kompresi tumor pada jaringan saraf atau kerusakan sistem saraf karena radiasi atau kemoterapi.(3-6) <br />
Penyebab nyeri neuropatik yang paling sering : (3-5)<br />
Nyeri neuropatik perifer<br />
• Poliradikuloneuropati demielinasi inflamasi akut dan kronik<br />
• Polineuropati alkoholik<br />
• Polineuropati oleh karena kemoterapi<br />
• Sindrom nyeri regional kompleks (complex regional pain syndrome)<br />
• Neuropati jebakan (misalnya, carpal tunnel syndrome)<br />
• Neuropati sensoris oleh karena HIV<br />
• Neuralgia iatrogenik (misalnya, nyeri post mastektomi atau nyeri post thorakotomi)<br />
• Neuropati sensoris idiopatik<br />
• Kompresi atau infiltrasi saraf oleh tumor<br />
• Neuropati oleh karena defisiensi nutrisional<br />
• Neuropati diabetik<br />
• Phnatom limb pain<br />
• Neuralgia post herpetik<br />
• Pleksopati post radiasi<br />
• Radikulopati (servikal, thorakal, atau lumbosakral)<br />
• Neuropati oleh karena paparan toksik<br />
• Neuralgia trigeminus (Tic Doulorex)<br />
• Neuralgia post traumatik<br />
Nyeri neuropatik sentral<br />
• Mielopati kompresif dengan stenosis spinalis<br />
• Mielopati HIV<br />
• Multiple sclerosis<br />
• Penyakit Parkinson<br />
• Mielopati post iskemik<br />
• Mielopati post radiasi<br />
• Nyeri post stroke<br />
• Nyeri post trauma korda spinalis<br />
• Siringomielia<br />
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</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Patofisiologi:</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span class="fullpost"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span class="fullpost"><span lang="IN">PATOFISIOLOGI</span></span><span lang="IN"><br />
<span class="fullpost">Mekanisme yang mendasari munculnya nyeri neuropati adalah: sensitisasi perifer, ectopic discharge, sprouting, sensitisasi sentral, dan disinhibisi. Perubahan ekspresi dan distribusi saluran ion natrium dan kalium terjadi setelah cedera saraf, dan meningkatkan eksitabilitas membran, sehingga muncul aktivitas ektopik yang bertanggung jawab terhadap munculnya nyeri neuropatik spontan (Woolf, 2004).(1,4,6)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Kerusakan jaringan dapat berupa rangkaian peristiwa yang terjadi di nosiseptor disebut nyeri inflamasi akut atau nyeri nosiseptif, atau terjadi di jaringan saraf, baik serabut saraf pusat maupun perifer disebut nyeri neuropatik. Trauma atau lesi di jaringan akan direspon oleh nosiseptor dengan mengeluarkan berbagai mediator inflamasi, seperti bradikinin, prostaglandin, histamin, dan sebagainya. Mediator inflamasi dapat mengaktivasi nosiseptor yang menyebabkan munculnya nyeri spontan, atau membuat nosiseptor lebih sensitif (sensitasi) secara langsung maupun tidak langsung. Sensitasi nosiseptor menyebabkan munculnya hiperalgesia. Trauma atau lesi serabut saraf di perifer atau sentral dapat memacu terjadinya remodelling atau hipereksibilitas membran sel. Di bagian proksimal lesi yang masih berhubungan dengan badan sel dalam beberapa jam atau hari, tumbuh tunas-tunas baru (sprouting). Tunas-tunas baru ini, ada yang tumbuh dan mencapai organ target, sedangkan sebagian lainnya tidak mencapai organ target dan membentuk semacam pentolan yang disebut neuroma. Pada neuroma terjadi akumulasi berbagai ion-channel, terutama Na+ channel. Akumulasi Na+ channel menyebabkan munculnya ectopic pacemaker. Di samping ion channel juga terlihat adanya molekul-molekul transducer dan reseptor baru yang semuanya dapat menyebabkan terjadinya ectopic discharge, abnormal mechanosensitivity, thermosensitivity, dan chemosensitivity (Devor and Seltzer, 1990). Ectopic discharge dan sensitisasi dari berbagai reseptor (mechanical, termal, chemical) dapat menyebabkan timbulnya nyeri spontan dan evoked pain.(1,4,6)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Lesi jaringan mungkin berlangsung singkat, dan bila lesi sembuh nyeri akan hilang. Akan tetapi, lesi yang berlanjut menyebabkan neuron-neuron di kornu dorsalis dibanjiri potensial aksi yang mungkin mengakibatkan terjadinya sensisitasi neuron-neuron tersebut. Sensitisasi neuron di kornu dorsalis menjadi penyebab timbulnya alodinia dan hiperalgesia sekunder. Dari keterangan di atas, secara sederhana dapat disimpulkan bahwa nyeri timbul karena aktivasi dan sensitisasi sistem nosiseptif baik perifer maupun sentral. (1,4,6)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Baik nyeri neuropatik perifer maupun sentral berawal dari sensitisasi neuron sebagai stimulus noksious melalui jaras nyeri sampai ke sentral. Bagian dari jaras ini dimulai dari kornu dorsalis, traktus spinotalamikus (struktur somatik) dan kolum dorsalis (untuk viseral), sampai talamus sensomotorik, limbik, korteks prefrontal dan korteks insula. Karakteristik sensitisasi neuron bergantung pada: meningkatnya aktivitas neuron; rendahnya ambang batas stimulus terhadap aktivitas neuron itu sendiri misalnya terhadap stimulus yang nonnoksious, dan luasnya penyebaran areal yang mengandung reseptor yang mengakibatkan peningkatan letupan-letupan dari berbagai neuron. Sensitisasi ini pada umumnya berasosiasi dengan terjadinya denervasi jaringan saraf akibat lesi ditambah dengan stimulasi yang terus menerus dan inpuls aferen baik yang berasal dari perifer maupun sentral dan juga bergantung pada aktivasi kanal ion di akson yang berkaitan dengan reseptor AMPA/kainat dan NMDA. Sejalan dengan berkembangnya penelitian secara molekuler maka ditemukan beberapa kebersamaan antara nyeri neuropatik dengan epilepsi dalam hal patologinya tentang keterlibatan reseptor misalnya NMDA dan AMPA dan plastisitas disinapsis, immediate early gene changes. Yang berbeda hanyalah dalam hal burst discharge secara paroksismal pada epilepsi sementara pada neuropatik yang terjadi adalah ectopic discharge. Nyeri neuropatik muncul akibat proses patologi yang berlangsung berupa perubahan sensitisasi baik perifer maupun sentral yang berdampak pada fungsi sistem inhibitorik serta gangguan interaksi antara somatik dan simpatetik. Keadaan ini memberikan gambaran umum berupa alodinia dan hiperalgesia. Permasalahan pada nyeri neuropatik adalah menyangkut terapi yang berkaitan dengan kerusakan neuron dan sifatnya ireversibel. Pada umumnya hal ini terjadi akibat proses apoptosis yang dipicu baik melalui modulasi intrinsik kalsium di neuron sendiri maupun akibat proses inflamasi sebagai faktor ekstrinsik. Kejadian inilah yang mendasari konsep nyeri kronik yang ireversibel pada sistem saraf. Atas dasar ini jugalah maka nyeri neuropatik harus secepat mungkin di terapi untuk menghindari proses mengarah ke plastisitas sebagai nyeri kronik. Neuron sensorik nosiseptif berakhir pada bagian lamina paling superfisial dari medula spinalis. Sebaliknya, serabut sensorik dengan ambang rendah (raba, tekanan, vibrasi, dan gerakan sendi) berakhir pada lapisan yang dalam. Penelitian eksperimental pada tikus menunjukkan adanya perubahan fisik sirkuit ini setelah cedera pada saraf. Pada beberapa minggu setelah cedera, terjadi pertumbuhan baru atau sprouting affreen dengan non noksious ke daerah-daerah akhiran nosiseptor. Sampai saat ini belum diketahui benar apakah hal yang serupa juga terjadi pada pasien dengan nyeri neuropati. Hal ini menjelaskan mengapa banyak kasus nyeri intraktabel terhadap terapi. Rasa nyeri akibat sentuhan ringan pada pasien nyeri neuropati disebabkan oleh karena respon sentral abnormal serabut sensorik non noksious. Reaksi sentral yang abnormal ini dapat disebabkan oleh faktor sensitisasi sentral, reorganisasi struktural, dan hilangnya inhibisi (Woolf, 2004). (1,4,6)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Nyeri neuropati merupakan nyeri yang dikarenakan adanya lesi pada sistem saraf perifer maupun pusat. Nyeri ini bersifat kronik dan mengakibatkan penurunan kualitas hidup penderita. Nyeri neuropati melibatkan gangguan neuronal fungsional dimana saraf perifer atau sentral terlibat dan menimbulkan nyeri khas bersifat epikritik (tajam dan menyetrum) yg ditimbulkan oleh serabut Aδ yg rusak, atau protopatik seperti disestesia, rasa terbakar, parestesia dengan lokalisasi tak jelas yang disebabkan oleh serabut C yang abnormal. Gejala-gejala ini biasa disertai dengan defisit neurologik atau gangguan fungsi lokal. (1,4,6)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Umumnya, lesi saraf tepi maupun sentral berakibat hilangnya fungsi seluruh atau sebagian sistim saraf tersebut, ini sering disebut sebagai gejala negatif. Akan tetapi, pada bagian kecil penderita dengan lesi saraf tepi, seperti pada penderita stroke, akan menunjukkan gejala positif yang berupa disestesia, parestesia atau nyeri. Nyeri yang terjadi akibat lesi sistem saraf ini dinamakan nyeri neuropatik. Nyeri neuropatik adalah nyeri yang didahuluhi atau disebabkan oleh lesi atau disfungsi primer pada sistem saraf. (1,4,6)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Iskemia, keracunan zat tonik, infeksi dan gangguan metabolik dapat menyebabkan lesi serabut saraf aferen. Lesi tersebut dapat mengubah fungsi neuron sensorik yang dalam keadaan normal dipertahankan secara aktif oleh keseimbangan antara neuron dengan lingkungannya. Gangguan yang terjadi dapat berupa gangguan keseimbangan neuron sensorik, melalui perubahan molekular, sehingga aktivitas serabut saraf aferen menjadi abnormal (mekanisme perifer) yang selanjutnya menyebabkan gangguan nosiseptik sentral. (1,4,6)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Pada nyeri inflamasi maupun nyeri neuropatik sudah jelas keterlibatan reseptor NMDA dalam proses sensitisasi sentral yang menimbulkan gejala hiperalgesia terutama sekunder dan alodinia. Akan tetapi di klinik ada perbedaaan dalam terapi untuk kedua jenis nyeri inflamasi sedangkan untuk nyeri neuropatik obat tersebut kurang efektif. Banyak teori telah dikembangkan untuk menerangkan perbedaan tersebut. (1,4,6)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Prinsip terjadinya nyeri adalah gangguan keseimbangan antara eksitasi dan inhibisi akibat kerusakan jaringan (inflamasi) atau sistem saraf (neuropatik). Eksitasi meningkat pada kedua jenis nyeri tersebut pada neyeri neuropatik dari beberapa keterangan sebelumnya telah diketahui bahwa inhibisi menurun yang sering disebut dengan istilah disinhibisi. Disinhibisi dapat disebabkan oleh penurunan reseptor opioid di neuron kornu dorsalis terutama di presinap serabut C. (1,4,6)</span></span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN"><br />
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</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Mekanisme: </span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Mekanisme yang mendasari munculnya nyeri neuropati adalah : sensitisasi perifer, ectopic discharge, sprouting, sensitisasi sentral, dan disinhibisi. Perubahan ekspresi dan distribusi saluran ion natrium dan kalium terjadi setelah cedera saraf, dan meningkatkan eksitabilitas membrane, sehingga muncul aktivitas tropic yang bertanggung jawab terhadap munculnya nyeri neuropatik spontan ( wolf, 2004)</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN"> </span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Klasifikasi dan karakteristik:</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Terdapat dua bentuk <b>nyeri neuropatik </b>ialah <b>nyeri neuropatik perifer </b>(Postherpetic neuralgia, trigeminal neuralgia,<b> </b>diabetic peripheral neuropathy, postsurgical neuropat hy, posttraumatic neuropathy,cancer pain) dan <b>nyeri neuropatik sentral </b>(poststroke pain).</div><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b> </b></div><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="fullpost"><span lang="IN">KLASIFIKASI</span></span><span lang="IN"><br />
<span class="fullpost">Klasifikasi nyeri neuropati terbagi menjadi 2, yakni berdasarkan penyakit yang mendahului dan letak anatomisnya, dan berdasarkan gejala.</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Berdasarkan penyakit yang mendahului dan letak anatomisnya, nyeri neuropati terbagi menjadi :(6,8)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">• Perifer, dapat diakibatkan oleh neuropati, nueralgia pasca herpes zoster, trauma susunan saraf pusat, radikulopati, neoplasma, dan lain-lain </span><br />
<span class="fullpost">• Medula spinalis, dapat diakibatkan oleh multiple sclerosis, trauma medula spinalis, neoplasma, arakhnoiditis, dan lain-lain</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">• Otak, dapat diakibatkan oleh stroke, siringomielia, neoplasma, dan lain-lain</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">Berdasarkan gejala, nyeri neuropati terbagi menjadi :</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">• Nyeri spontan (independent pain)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">• Nyeri oleh karena stimulus (evoked pain)</span><br />
<span class="fullpost">• Gabungan antara keduanya</span><br />
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</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN">6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Karakteristik:</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Proses patologik di system somatosensorik</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Nyeri proyeksi pada daerah yang dipersarafi</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: left;"><b><span lang="IN">Intensitas nyeri</span></b></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Definisi: </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 5.25pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 9pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="color: #666666;">Intensitas nyeri adalah gambaran tentang seberapa parah nyeri dirasakan oleh individu, pengukuran intensitas nyeri sangat subjektif dan individual dan kemungkinan nyeri dalam intensitas yang sama dirasakan sangat berbeda oleh dua orang yang berbeda oleh dua orang yang berbeda</span><span style="color: #666666;">.</span><b><u><span lang="IN" style="color: #666666; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt;"> Sumber</span></u></b><b><u><span lang="IN" style="color: #666666; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt;"> </span></u></b><span lang="IN" style="color: #666666; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt;">Priharjo, R (1993). <i>Perawatan Nyeri, pemenuhan aktivitas istirahat. </i>Jakarta : EGC hal : 87.</span><b><u><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt;"></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; line-height: 18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 5.25pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 9pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b><u><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"> </span></span></u></b></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="IN">Jenis: </span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="IN">Menurut smeltzer, S.C bare B.G (2002) adalah sebagai berikut :</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><b><span lang="IN">1) skala intensitas nyeri deskritif</span></b><b></b></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><b><span lang="IN">2) Skala identitas nyeri numerik</span></b><span lang="IN"></span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><b><span lang="IN">3) Skala analog visual</span></b><span lang="IN"></span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><b><span lang="IN">4) Skala nyeri menurut bourbanis</span></b><span lang="IN"></span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><b><span lang="IN">Keterangan :</span></b><span lang="IN"></span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="IN">0 :Tidak nyeri </span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="IN">1-3 : Nyeri ringan : secara obyektif klien dapat berkomunikasi dengan baik.</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="IN">4-6 : Nyeri sedang : Secara obyektif klien mendesis,menyeringai, dapat menunjukkan lokasi nyeri, dapat mendeskripsikannya, dapat mengikuti perintah dengan baik.</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="IN">7-9 : Nyeri berat : secara obyektif klien terkadang tidak dapat</span><span lang="IN"> </span><span lang="IN">mengikuti perintah tapi masih respon terhadap tindakan, dapat menunjukkan lokasi nyeri, tidak dapat mendeskripsikannya, tidak dapat diatasi dengan alih posisi nafas panjang dan distraksi</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="IN">10 : Nyeri sangat berat : Pasien sudah tidak mampu lagi</span><span lang="IN"> </span><span lang="IN">berkomunikasi, memukul.</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left;"><b><u><span lang="IN" style="color: #666666; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">Sumber</span></u></b><b><u><span lang="IN" style="color: #666666; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></u></b><span lang="IN" style="color: #666666; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">Priharjo, R (1993). <i>Perawatan Nyeri, pemenuhan aktivitas istirahat. </i>Jakarta : EGC hal : 87.</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span lang="IN">Cara pengukuran nyeri: </span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>Subjective Report</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>Spontaneous Behavioural Responses</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>Physiological Measures</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Ada 3 tipe pengukuran nyeri :</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 108pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Self report measure</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 108pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Observational measure</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 108pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Pengukuran fisiologis</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Jenis pengukuran nyeri :</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 108pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Pengukuran komponen sensorik / intensitas nyeri (3 metode : VRS, VAS,NRS)</div><div align="left" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 108pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Pengukuran komponen efektif / toleransi nyeri</div>Mizz Thinkinghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01153482142006250238noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1524252628791135370.post-67000544617961011042011-03-31T08:19:00.001-07:002011-03-31T08:19:39.288-07:00Temporomandibular Disorder<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Temporomandibular Disorder</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Definisi : </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Gangguan TMJ adalah sekelompok masalah-masalah kompleks sendi rahang.<span class="google-src-text">.</span> Gangguan TMJ juga kadang-kadang disebut sebagai nyeri myofacial disfungsi dan Costen's syndrome<span class="google-src-text">.</span> Karena otot dan persendian bekerja sama, masalah dengan salah satu dapat menyebabkan kejang, sakit kepala, sakit telinga, masalah gigitan (malocclusion), mengklik suara, atau terkunci rahang</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Temporomandibular disorder adl gangguan masalah yang mempengaruhi sendi rahang</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Merupakan kelainan pd sendi temporomandibular yg diakibatkan oleh fungsi malfungsi dr musculoskeletal ataupun proses degenerative pada sendi itu sendiri. AUL</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kelainan pd persendian dari kondilus mandibula dengan fossa glenoidalis dr tulang temporal. LEVI</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Gejala TMD: </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tanda dan gejala gangguan TMJ meliputi: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Rasa sakit </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Nyeri Anda di dalam/ sekitar telinga </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Kesulitan mengunyah atau ketidaknyamanan saat mengunyah</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wajah sakit </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Mengunci dari sendi, sehingga sulit untuk membuka atau menutup mulut </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Headache </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tidak nyaman menggigit </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Gigitan yang tidak seimbang, karena satu atau lebih gigi yang membuat kontak prematur </span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Gangguan TMJ dapat juga menyebabkan suara atau kisi mengklik sensasi ketika Anda membuka mulut atau mengunyah. Tapi kalau tidak ada rasa sakit atau pembatasan gerakan yang terkait dengan rahang Anda mengklik, Anda mungkin tidak memiliki kelainan TMJ. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Apa saja gejala gangguan TMJ? </span></b></div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Anda mungkin merasakan rasa sakit tepat di depan telinga, dan bisa menyebar ke pipi, telinga itu sendiri, dan ke kulit. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Gerakan rahang dapat dikurangi. Ini mungkin ketat umum perasaan atau sensasi terjebak rahang. Sangat jarang, rahang mungkin mendapatkan 'terkunci', menyebabkan kesulitan dalam membuka atau menutup mulut. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Karena telinga adalah sangat dekat dengan sendi rahang, beberapa orang mengalami gejala telinga seperti suara di telinga, kepekaan terhadap suara atau pusing (vertigo). </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Klik atau suara-suara kadang-kadang dapat terdengar dari sendi rahang saat mengunyah atau memindahkan mulut Anda. Suara-suara ini bisa sangat normal, jadi mereka hanya relevan jika Anda memiliki gejala lain di sendi seperti sakit atau mengurangi gerakan. </span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Gejala</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Nyeri sekitar sendi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Gerak rahang bawah yg terbatas</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Nyeri pd otot pengunyahan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Penyimpangan gerak rahang bawah</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Nyeri kepala </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Maloklusi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">TISA</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Etiologi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Karena engsel menggabungkan tindakan dengan gerakan geser, yang Temporomandibular bersama adalah salah satu sendi yang paling kompleks dalam tubuh Anda. Rahang bawah telah dibulatkan berakhir bahwa luncuran masuk dan keluar dari soket sendi ketika Anda berbicara, mengunyah atau menguap.. Bagian-bagian tulang yang berinteraksi di gabungan ditutup dengan kartilago dan dipisahkan oleh guncangan kecil menyerap disk, yang membuat gerakan halus. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span> </span>Gangguan TMJ dapat terjadi apabila: </span></div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Disk mengikis atau bergerak keluar dari penyelarasan yang tepat. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tulang rawan sendi yang rusak karena radang sendi. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Joint rusak oleh pukulan atau dampak lainnya. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Otot-otot yang menstabilkan sendi menjadi lelah dari bekerja terlalu keras, yang dapat terjadi jika Anda terbiasa menggiling mengepalkan atau gigi Anda. </span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam banyak kasus, penyebab gejala TMJ tidak jelas. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Berikut ini adalah perilaku atau kondisi yang dapat menyebabkan gangguan TMJ. </span></div><ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&sl=en&u=http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp%3Farticlekey%3D43126&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dtmj%2Bdisorder%26hl%3Did%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26channel%3Ds%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26hs%3Dzqr%26sa%3DG&rurl=translate.google.co.id&usg=ALkJrhhFanI2DUVfhQbjZL3oXnofCRzSDw"><span style="color: windowtext;">Teeth grinding</span></a> dan mengepalkan gigi (bruxism) meningkatkan dikenakan di lapisan tulang rawan TMJ. Mereka yang menggiling atau mengepalkan gigi mereka mungkin tidak menyadari perilaku ini kecuali mereka diberitahu oleh seseorang mengamati pola ini saat sedang tidur atau oleh profesional gigi melihat tanda-tanda keausan pada gigi. Banyak pasien terbangun di pagi hari dengan rahang atau telinga sakit. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">kebiasaan mengunyah permen karet atau menggigit kuku </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">masalah gigi dan misalignment gigi (malocclusion). Pasien mungkin mengeluh bahwa sulit untuk menemukan yang nyaman gigitan atau bahwa cara gigi mereka cocok bersama-sama telah berubah. Mengunyah hanya pada satu sisi rahang dapat mengakibatkan atau akibat dari masalah TMJ. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">trauma pada rahang,. Sebelumnya patah tulang di tulang rahang atau wajah dapat menyebabkan gangguan TMJ. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&sl=en&u=http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp%3Farticlekey%3D488&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dtmj%2Bdisorder%26hl%3Did%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26channel%3Ds%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26hs%3Dzqr%26sa%3DG&rurl=translate.google.co.id&usg=ALkJrhjSeDMzsAKKokzT9mt6NtB_9bQBpg"><span style="color: windowtext;">Stres</span></a> sering mengarah pada energi gugup yang belum dirilis. Hal ini sangat umum bagi orang-orang di bawah tekanan untuk melepaskan energi dengan gugup ini baik secara sadar atau tidak sadar mengepalkan grinding dan gigi mereka. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tugas kerja seperti memegang telepon antara kepala dan bahu dapat berkontribusi gangguan TMJ. </span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">ETIOLOGI</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Presdiposisi: sistemik , psikologi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Presipitasi: kebiasaan, trauma</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Factor perpetuasi: tingkah laku sosial</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 72pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pemeriksaan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pemeriksaan dapat dilakukan dengan melakukan pemeriksaan terhadap rentang pergerakan, bunyi sendi,rasa sakit, rasa nyeri dan pemeriksaan intraoral serta pemeriksaan radiografik</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pemeriksaan intraoral, yang perlu diperhatikan :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>è<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Hubungan oklusi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>è<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Freeway space</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>è<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Overjet & Overbite</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>è<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Gigi yang tanggal</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>è<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Protesa</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>è<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Atrisi dan berkas abrasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>è<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kontak gigi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mendengarkan nge_klik atau tidak</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bias tidak membuka mulut</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Panoramic</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ada tidak penyebabnya</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">MRI / CT : jaringan lunak</span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>à</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> melihat detail ruang sendi NDUTY</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Saat membuka mulut : 5 cm, lateral 1cm ,anterior 1-2 cm ISA</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pemeriksaan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Klinis</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Radiologi :panoramic</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Psikologi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">TISA</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Klasifikasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Terbagi dalam 2 klasifikasi </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Myogenous TMJ : terjadi akibat ketidak seimbangan kerja otot rahang dan sistem saraf </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Hiperaktifitas pada otot mengunyah </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>à</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> Kelelahan otot, spasme, disfungsi, perubahan oklusi gigi geligi </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>à</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> berbagai gejala </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Arthrogenous TMJ: terjadi akibat dislokasi kronik berulang/ hilang timbul, degenerative joint disorders, systemic arthritic conditions, ankylosis, infections, and neoplasi</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sumber : KULPAK</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span> </span>Diagnostik:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tulang2 krainal : hiperpalsia</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kelainan2 TMJ : deviasi, perubahan diskus, inflamasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kelainan2 otot masticatory : spasme, myofacial pain</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">ISA</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>f.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bagaimana pasien di evaluasi<span> </span>dan diagnosis ketika masalah TMD dicurigai? </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Seringkali, tidak ada tes yang diperlukan jika Anda sehat dan memiliki gejala yang khas dari gangguan TMJ. <br />
<br />
Jika penyebabnya tidak pasti, tes darah dapat membantu untuk mencari tanda-tanda peradangan, atau untuk menguji masalah-masalah tertentu seperti tengkorak arteritis (lihat di bawah). <br />
<br />
MRI scan kadang-kadang digunakan untuk mendapatkan gambaran tentang apa yang terjadi di sendi itu sendiri<span class="google-src-text">.</span> X-ray adalah pilihan lain, tetapi jarang digunakan sekarang bahwa MRI scan yang tersedia. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>g.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Terapi</span></div><h2>Apa pengobatan untuk gangguan TMJ? </h2><span class="google-src-text">.</span> Sebagian besar masalah di sendi rahang dapat dibantu dengan perawatan sederhana seperti obat penghilang rasa sakit dan nasihat mengenai bagaimana untuk beristirahat bersama. Ada berbagai perawatan yang sering digunakan dalam kombinasi: <br />
<h3><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Istirahat sendi rahang </span></h3>Anda bisa beristirahat bersama dengan makan makanan lunak dan tidak menggunakan permen karet. Juga, hindari membuka mulut sangat lebar - jadi jangan lakukan terlalu banyak menyanyi, dan cobalah untuk tidak menguap terlalu luas. Memijat otot dan menerapkan kehangatan dapat membantu.Pengobatan lain adalah relaksasi dan mengurangi stres terapi - mungkin karena orang cenderung mengepalkan rahang mereka ketika mereka sedang stres, atau karena stres membuat sakit parah. <br />
<br />
Splints atau 'menggigit penjaga "kadang-kadang disarankan . Ini menutupi gigi pada malam hari untuk mengurangi mengepalkan dari rahang, dan dapat dibuat oleh dokter gigi. Ada bukti yang pasti dari penelitian cobaan yang mereka bekerja, tetapi beberapa orang mengatakan bahwa mereka menemukan splints membantu. <br />
<h3><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tablet atau obat-obatan </span></h3>Obat penghilang rasa sakit seperti parasetamol, ibuprofen atau kodein bisa membantu. Jika hal ini tidak cukup, relaksan otot atau dosis kecil obat yang disebut 'trisiklik antidepresan' dapat memberi rasa sakit ditambahkan. <br />
<h3><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Latihan atau fisioterapi </span></h3>Rahang latihan dan fisioterapi dapat membantu otot-otot rahang untuk bekerja lebih baik sehingga ada sedikit ketegangan pada daerah sendi rahang. Ada informasi tentang latihan dari bagian informasi lebih lanjut di bawah ini. <br />
<h3><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pengobatan kondisi lain </span></h3>Jika ada kondisi yang mendasari, misalnya, suatu jenis radang sendi yang memberikan kontribusi kepada gangguan TMJ, ini mungkin perlu memperlakukan dalam dirinya sendiri. <br />
<h3><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Suntikan atau pembedahan </span></h3><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Suntikan steroid ke dalam sendi dapat membantu, ketika gejala yang disebabkan peradangan pada sendi. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jika otot-otot rahang yang terlalu aktif tingkat yang parah (seperti dengan gerakan gangguan), suntikan toksin botulinum dapat mengurangi gejala. Ada perdebatan mengenai seberapa efektif pengobatan ini. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Untuk sangat sedikit pasien, pembedahan untuk sendi rahang dapat mengusulkan. Berbagai operasi yang berbeda dapat dilakukan, tergantung pada situasi individual. </span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">TERapi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jaw rest</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Terapi panas & dingin</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Obat2 an</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Terapi fisik</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Manajemen stress</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Terapi oklusal</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Forensic kelainan gigitan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Operasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">AUL</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">TERapi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Terapi dasar : lembar panas & dingin, makan makanan lunak, minum obat, penjagal malam, menjalani perawatan yang kolektif, menghindari gerakan rahang, belajar teknik relaksasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Perawatan Transcutanius</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">USG</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Trigger titik suntikan </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Terapi gelombang radio</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Pembedahan </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Operasi gabungan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">NDUTY </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Nyeri yang 2 hari : compress dingin 5-10 menit 4X sehari</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Nyeri pada hari 3 : berikan pemanasan slm 20<span> </span>menit 2-4 X sehari dgn handuk hangat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Massage dan stretching<span> </span>pada otot wajah</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">ISA</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mastikasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Definisi : </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">suatu aktivitas yang dimaksudkan terutama untuk mencerna makanan dan menyiapkannya sebelum ditelan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">S : W. E. McDevitt, Anatomi Fungsional dari Sistem Pengunyahan. Jakarta : EGC</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tindakan mengunyah ketika gigi molar digunakan u menggerus dan gigi2 insisif u memotong makanan AUL</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Suatu proses penghancuran makanan yg melibatkan organ2 dlm rongga mulut dan saliva shg mengubah ukuran dan konsistensi NDUTY</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Organ yang berperan di dalam mastikasi :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">gigi geligi, otot2 rahang, sendi,tulang, saraf dll</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: 18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>•<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Elevator ( membuka ) : Temporalis, Masseter, Pterygoideus medialis </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: 18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>•<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Depressor ( menutup ) : Pterygoideus lateralis, Geniohyoid, Mylohyoid, Digastricus</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sendi-sendi yang berperan dalam pengunyahan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sendi kraniofasial (Mofett):ada 209 sendi kraniofasial secara anatomi sbb:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">sinartrodial </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">=119 </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">diartrodial</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> = 8</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sendi Kraniomandibula : pergerakan dari mandibula</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">khusus dental = 82</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">S : W. E. McDevitt, Anatomi Fungsional dari Sistem Pengunyahan. Jakarta : EGC</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tulang-tulang yang berperan dalam pengunyahan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">os maxillaris</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">os mandibularis</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">palatum/ os palatinum</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">os. temporal</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Saraf yang berperan dalam pengunyahan</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">N V,<span> </span>VII, IX, X, XI, dan N servical 2 dan 3</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: 18pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Proses: </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Makanan masuk ke rongga mulut kemudian makanan dihaluskan, dihancurkan dan dipotong dengan menggerakkan lengkung gigi bawah, searah atau berlawanan dengan lengkungan dari gigi atas yang tetap kedudukannya dengan dibantu lidah untuk meletakkan dari gigi yang satu dengan gigi yang lain dan dibasahi dengan sekresi glandula salivariae dan mengalir ke dorsum lingua yang akn membentuk sulkus datar untuk menampung massa makanan yang disebut bolus. Bolus ditahan terhadap permukaan dalam palatum, kemudian labium oris akan menutup, gigi geligi saling berkontak, kemudian akan berlanjut ke proses penelanan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Muscle Masticatory</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Definisi: Otot2 yang berkaitan dengan pengunyahan . NDUTY</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Macam2:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Otot-otot pengunyahan ( menggerakkan mandibula ) : Masseter, Temporalis, Pterygoideus medial, Pterygoideus lateral, Digastricus </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>à</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> membentu membuka dan menurunkan mandibula</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M.masseter</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> : otot tebal, bentuk 4 persegi panjang d sebelah pinggir wajah.terdiri dari 2 prosuperficial dan profunda.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. pterigoideus medialis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> : suatu massa jar otot yg kuat, tebal, 4 persegi panjang, terletak pada sisi medial dari ramus mandibula.Terletak d tulang maksila sampai ramus….. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. pterigoideus medialis acesorius : lemberan segi 3 dari jar otot pada sisi medialotot pterigoideus medialis (Koritzer dan Suarez, 1980)</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. temporalis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> : otot berempal 2dg origo bntuk kipas dan tendon yang besar, kuat </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. kapsul mandibula : otot kecil, bagian dari kondylus mandibula</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. pterigoideus lateralis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> : terletak dalam ramus mandibula dan otot temporalis pada dinding samping nasofaring.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. disgatricus</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> : di bentuk oleh 2 massa seperti perut dari jaringan otot yang di hubungkan oleh suatu tendon intermediet.</span></li>
</ol></ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">S : W. E. McDevitt, Anatomi Fungsional dari Sistem Pengunyahan. Jakarta : EGC</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Otot temporalis</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dibadi menjadi 3 ruas : depan dan tengah menyebabkan pengangkatan dan penempatan rahang bawah. Serat tengah dan belakang berperan dalam memundurkan rahang bawah, merupakan suatu elevator dan retraktor.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Otot maseter</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fungsi utama otot maseter ialah mengangkat rahang bawah</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Menghancurkan makanan yang keras dan bekerjasama dengan M. Pterigoideus lateral</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Otot pteriogoid medial </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fungsi utama ialah menggerakkan rahang bawah untuk mengangkat dan ke lateral dan juga membantu pergerakan ke depan (prostrusif)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Otot pterigoid lateral </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Menarik rahang bawah kedepan dan ketengah, yang diimla oleh morfologi lekuk sendi (fosa artikulus). Serat yang berbeda melekatkan cakram sendi (diskus artikulus ) dan membatu menarik cakram kedepan. Jadi kegiatan utamnya adalah menggerakkan kedepan dan membuka. Berperan secara ekalateral, otot peterigoid lateral membantu pergerakan rahang bawah kelateral.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Perut anterior otot digatik</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Menghasikan pergerakan membuka rahang bawah bersamaan dengan otot supra dan infrahioid</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Scaiffe dan holt, 1969</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Penggerak utama mandibula</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M.masseter : otot tebal, bentuk 4 persegi panjang d sebelah pinggir wajah.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. pterigoideus medialis : suatu massa jar otot yg kuat, tebal, 4 persegi panjang, terletak pada sisi medial dari ramus mandibula.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. pterigoideus medialis acesorius : lemberan segi 3 dari jar otot pada sisi medialotot pterigoideus medialis (Koritzer dan Suarez, 1980)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. temporalis : otot berempal 2dg origo bntuk kipas dan tendon yang besar, kuat </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. kapsul mandibula : otot kecil</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>f.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. pterigoideus lateralis : terletak dalam ramus mandibula dan otot temporalis pada dinding samping nasofaring.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>g.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">M. disgatricus : di bentuk oleh 2 massa seperti perut dari jaringan otot yang di hubungkan oleh suatu tendon intermediet.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">S : W. E. McDevitt, Anatomi Fungsional dari Sistem Pengunyahan. Jakarta : EGC</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Disfungsi otot pengunyahan: </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 126pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yang sering terjadi :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Disfungsi pada otot- otot pengunyahan </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Susunan bagian dalam sendi yang tidak tepat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Penyakit degenerasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Trauma : fraktur, dislokasi, traumatic arthritis, sinovitis</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 126pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yang jarang terjadi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Peradangan/ inflamasi : infeksi, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, penyakit deposit Kristal</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ankiolosis</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Cacat congenital dan perkembangan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tumor : osteoma, kondroma</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><br />
</div>Mizz Thinkinghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01153482142006250238noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1524252628791135370.post-21004475283432827912011-03-31T03:57:00.001-07:002011-03-31T03:57:58.702-07:00AMALGAM ALLOY ARUS GALVANIS<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Amalgam</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Definisi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Amalgam adalah bahan tambal berbahan dasar logam, di mana komponen utamanya adalah <span>liquid</span> yaitu logam merkuri dan b<span>ubuk</span> yaitu logam paduan yang kandungan utamanya terdiri dari perak, timah, dan tembaga. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Amalgam didefinisikan sebagai suatu alloy merkuri dengan satu atau beberapa logam lain seperti perak, timah, tembaga dan seng.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Amalgam dalam bidang kedokteran gigi disebut dental amalgam, yaitu suatu paduan antara merkuri (Hg) dan suatu alloy.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Suatu alloy air raksa dgn satu/beberapa logam lain (sari dental)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Logam campur yang mengandung merkuri (phillips)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">amalgam adalah campuran dari dua atau beberapa logam, salah satunya adalah merkuri.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Komposisi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tambalan amalgam terbuat dari percampuran merkuri cair (43-54%) dan beberapa bubuk logam (46-57%) yang terdiri dari perak, timah, tembaga, seng dan sedikit logam lainnya.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam publikasinya pada tahun 1896, komposisi alloy amalgam adalah :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1. Ag (perak) 68,50%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2. Sn (Timah putih) 25,50%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3. Au (emas) 5%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4. Zn (seng) 1%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fungsi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sifat</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Amalgam memiliki sifat-sifat fisis yaitu perubahan dimensi dan memiliki kekuatan untuk menahan tekanan pengunyahan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kekurangan dan kelebihan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kualitas yang paling baik dari amalgam gigi ini adalah tahan lama dan mudah manipulasinya. Cukup bisa beradaptasi dengan cairan mulut, amalgam adalah restorasi yang relatif murah dan dapat diselesaikan dalam satu kali kunjungan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tambalan amalgam mempunyai berbagai keuntungan, di antaranya:</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1 Kuat</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2 Tahan lama</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3 Tidak terlalu mahal </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4 Pengerjaannya relatif mudah</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kelebihan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dapat disimpan lama dan dibandingkan dengan bahan restorasi lain.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tidak begitu mahal</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sampai tingkat tertentu kesalahan dalam manipulasi masih menghasilkan tumpatan yang baik</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jika dibuat oleh operator yang trampil dan lingkungannya mendukung, bahan tumpatan ini dapat tahan lama.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kekurangan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kelemahan utama amalgam terletak pada warnanya</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tidak adanya adhesi terhadap jaringan gigi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Perlekatannya dengan jaringan dentin gigi secara makromekanik seperti retention and resistence form, dan undercut tidak dapat melekat secara kimia.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Cenderung mudah korosi di dalam lingkungan mulut karena strukturnya yang heterogen</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Permukaannya yang kasar</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adanya lapisan senyawa oksida yang belum sempurna.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Kelebihan : </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-bottom: 3.75pt; margin-left: 48pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Dapat dikatakan sejauh ini amalgam adalah bahan tambal yang paling kuat dibandingkan dengan bahan tambal lain dalam melawan tekanan kunyah, sehingga amalgam dapat bertahan dalam jangka waktu yang sangat lama di dalam mulut (pada beberapa penelitian dilaporkan amalgam bertahan hingga lebih dari 15 tahun dengan kondisi yang baik) asalkan tahap-tahap penambalan sesuai dengan prosedur. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-bottom: 3.75pt; margin-left: 48pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Ketahanan terhadap keausan sangat tinggi, tidak seperti bahan lain yang pada umumnya lama kelamaan akan mengalami aus karena faktor-faktor dalam mulut yang saling berinteraksi seperti gaya kunyah dan cairan mulut. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-bottom: 3.75pt; margin-left: 48pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Penambalan dengan amalgam relatif lebih simpel dan mudah dan tidak terlalu “technique sensitive” bila dibandingkan dengan resin komposit, di mana sedikit kesalahan dalam salah satu tahapannya akan sangat mempengaruhi ketahanan dan kekuatan bahan tambal resin komposit. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-bottom: 3.75pt; margin-left: 48pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Biayanya relatif lebih rendah </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Kekurangan :</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-bottom: 3.75pt; margin-left: 48pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Secara estetis kurang baik karena warnanya yang kontras dengan warna gigi, sehingga tidak dapat diindikasikan untuk gigi depan atau di mana pertimbangan estetis sangat diutamakan. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-bottom: 3.75pt; margin-left: 48pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Dalam jangka waktu lama ada beberapa kasus di mana tepi-tepi tambalan yang berbatasan langsung dengan gigi dapat menyebabkan perubahan warna pada gigi sehingga tampak membayang kehitaman </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-bottom: 3.75pt; margin-left: 48pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pada beberapa kasus ada sejumlah pasien yang ternyata alergi dengan logam yang terkandung dalam bahan tambal amalgam. Selain itu, beberapa waktu setelah penambalan pasien terkadang sering mengeluhkan adanya rasa sensitif terhadap rangsang panas atau dingin. Namun umumnya keluhan tersebut tidak berlangsung lama dan berangsur hilang setelah pasien dapat beradaptasi. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.75pt; margin-bottom: 3.75pt; margin-left: 48pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Hingga kini issue tentang toksisitas amalgam yang dikaitkan dengan merkuri yang dikandungnya masih hangat dibicarakan. Pada negara-negara tertentu ada yang sudah memberlakukan larangan bagi penggunaan amalgam sebagai bahan tambal. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Klasifikasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.<span> </span>Alloy konvensional,Komposisi :<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">perak min 65%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">timah putih max 29%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">tembaga max 6%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">seng max 2%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">air raksa max 3%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.<span> </span>Alloy kaya kuprum(higher copper alloy),Komposisi :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">perak 40-60%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Timah putih 27-30%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tembaga 13-30%</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>7.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Manipulasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>à<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Proportioning, menimbang jmlh merkuri dengan alt penetes(volume dispenser),dgn tabel alloy terutama pd pencampuran scr mekanis,menggunakan amplop yg telah di timbang. Perbandingan takaran alloy:merkuri sebesar 5:7 atau 5:8. Kelebihan merkuri mempermudah triturasi dan dpt diperoleh campuran yg plastis. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>à<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Trituration (mixing)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a. Pencampuran manual,menggunakan mortar dan pastel(alu kecil dr gelas) yg terbuat dr gelas.permukaam mortar agak kasar berguna utk mempertinggi gesekan antara amalgam dan permukaan mortar. Resiko: paparan uap Hg dpt berkontak dg tubuh</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b. Pencampuran scr mekanis,alloy dan merkuri dicampur dlm kapsul baik dg maupun tnp pastel plastik/stainless steel.pastel yg dignkn memiliki diameter yg jauh lbh kcl dr kapsulnya bila dipakai alloy yg berbtk pil utk memudahkan menghancurkannya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Triturasi tergantung pd :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span> </span>Kecepatan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span> </span>Daya yg mengenai amalgam</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span> </span>Btk partikel serbuk amalgam</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>à<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Condensation, bertujuan memampatkan tumpatan. </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>à<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Trimming,carving,burnishing</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Trimming dan carving dilakukan sblm amalgam setting. Biasanya 2-3 mnt stlh mixing & dihentikan stlh massa amalgam muali mengeras(5-10 mnt). Stlh carving selesai, permukaan amalgam dihaluskan menggunakan burnisher(menaikkan kekerasan permukaan amalgam,mengurangi porositas&korosi,memperbaiki adaptasi marginal amalgam)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Trimming : memotong kelebihan amalgam</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Carving : membentuk kontur tumpatan</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>à<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Finishing,polishing : dilakukan stlh 24 jam stlh penambalan. Amalgam dr alloy kaya kuprum lbh cpt mendptkan kekuatannya.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>8.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kualitas restorasi amalgam gigi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a. Yang dapat dikendalikan oleh dokter gigi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemilihan logam campur</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Rasio merkuri : logam campur</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Prosedur triturasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teknik kondensasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Keutuhan bagian tepi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Karakteristik anatomi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hasil akhir</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b. Di bawah kendali pabrik</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Komposisi logam campur</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemanasan logam campur</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ukuran,bentuk,dan metode pembuatan partikel logam campur</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>ᵜ<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Manipulasi permukaan partikel</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>9.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Arus Galvanis</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Terdapat dua jenis tambalan yang berbeda di dalam mulut, apabila dua jenis tambalan yang berbeda itu saling beradu, akan menimbulkan arus galvanis, yang salah satu efeknya adalah menyebabkan rasa linu pada gigi yang besangkutan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>10.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sifat-sifat Alloy</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span>11.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Efek-efek mercuri/Hg/air raksa</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">-<span> </span>Alergi,ditandai dg rasa gatal,ruam,bersin,kesulitan bernapas,pembengkakan.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">-<span> </span>Keracunan</span></div>Mizz Thinkinghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01153482142006250238noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1524252628791135370.post-40993784819772379652011-03-31T03:37:00.001-07:002011-03-31T03:37:43.309-07:00Populasi dan sampel metodelogi penelitian<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Populasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1. definisi</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>Sejumlah besar subyek yang<span> </span>mempunyai karakteristik ttt.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Prof.Dr.Sudigdo Sastroasmoro, Sp.A(K) & Prof.Dr.Sofyan Ismael, Sp.A(K).2008.Dasar-Dasar Metodologi Penelitian Klinis.Jakarta:CV.Sagung Seto)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 49.5pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2. macam</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Populasi target: populasi yg merupakan sasaran akhir penerapan hasil penelitian </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Populasi terjangkau/sumber : bagian populasi target yang dapat d jangkau peneliti</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Prof.Dr.Sudigdo Sastroasmoro, Sp.A(K) & Prof.Dr.Sofyan Ismael, Sp.A(K).2008.Dasar-Dasar Metodologi Penelitian Klinis.Jakarta:CV.Sagung Seto)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 49.5pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">3. penetapan populasi (definisi batas-batas populasi)</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Pertimbangan keterkaitan<span> </span>atau ketergayutan subyek dalam populasi dengan permasalahan penelitian.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Pertimbangan ini terutama menyangkut substansi atau ikhwal yang akan diteliti. Pertanyaan yang perlu dijawab dalam rangka pertimbangan tersebut ialah : apakah dengan memilih populasi yang dimaksud inti permasalahan dapat terjawab?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Pertimbangan yang menyangkut prosedur atau jenis penelitian yang dilakukan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Pertimbangan ini terutama menyangkut aspek teknik metodologik, maksudnya ialah apakah variabel-variabel penelitian yang akan dimunculkan atau diukur dengan menggunakan teknik penelitian (eksperimental atau non-eksperimental) dapat diperoleh dari subyek dalam populasi yang dimaksud?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Pratiknya, AW., 2003. ”Dasar-dasar metodologi penelitian kedokteran” Ed.1 Cet. 5. Jakarta; PT RajaGrafindo Persada)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Membatasi populasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Apabila tidak dilakuakn pembatasan-pembatsan terhadap populasi, maka kesimpulan yang ditarik dan hasil penelitian tidak menggmabarkan atau mewakili seluruh populasi. Taanpa pembata</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">sa</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">n dengan jelas anggota populasi, kita tidak memperoleh sampel yang representatif</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Mendaftar seluruh unit yang menjadi anggota populasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Seluruh unit yang menjadi anggota populasi dicatat secara jelas sehingga dapat diketahui unit-unit yang termasuk pada populasi dan unit mana yang tidak</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Menentukan sampel yang akan dipilih</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dari anggota populasi diatas, kemudian dipilih anggota 2 populasi yang kan dipilh sebagai sampel. Besarnya atau banyaknya anggota yang akan dijadikan sampel memrlukan perhitungan tersendiri </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Menentukan teknik sampling</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Teknik pengambilan sampling ini sangat penting, karean apabila salah dalam menggunakan teknik sampling maka hasilnya pun akan jauh dari kebenaran.<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr.Soekidjo Notoatmodjo.2005.Metodologi Penelitian Kesehatan.Jakarta:Rineka Cipta)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">4. hal-hal yg perlu dipertimbangkan dalam memilih populasi</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>- keterkaitan subjek populasi dengan masalah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>- jenis penelitian atau prosedur penelitian</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Sample</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1. fungsi</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Lebih murah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dgn hanya meneliti sebagian subyek dr populasi, maka biaya yg diperlukan utk penelitian mjd jauh lebih murah dibanding dgn bila penelitian dilakukan pd seluruh populasi.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Lebih mudah</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dgn hanya melakukan pengukuran pd sebagian subyek dr populasi, pelaksanaan penelitian jg mjd lbh mudah.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Lebih cepat</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dgn meneliti lbh sedikit subyek, maka hasil penelitian yg diharapkan jg lbh cepat diperoleh.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Lebih akurat</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dlm byk hal pemeriksaan/pengukuran thd sedikit subyek memungkinkan pemeriksaan yg lbh teliti dibandingkan dgn pemeriksaan thd seluruh populasi.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Mewakili populasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Bila dipilih dgn cara yg benar, maka sampel dpt mewakili populasi, sedangkan inferensi hasilnya dpt dilakukan dgn tingkat kesalahan yg ditetapkan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>f.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Lebih spesifik. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dgn memilih sampel, maka dpt direkrut pasien dgn sifat tertentu, shg dpt diperoleh data pd kelompok pasien yg lbh homogen.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Prof.Dr.Sudigdo Sastroasmoro, Sp.A(K) & Prof.Dr.Sofyan Ismael, Sp.A(K).2008.Dasar-Dasar Metodologi Penelitian Klinis.Jakarta:CV.Sagung Seto)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">menghemat biaya</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">: proses pelaksanaan penelitian yang mencakup alat penelitian, pengumpulan data, pengolahan data dan sebagainya memerlukan biaya yang relative besar.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">mempercepat pelaksanaan penelitian</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> : penelitian yang dilakukan terhadap obyek yang banyak (seluruh populasi) jelas akan memakan waktu yang lama, bila dibandingkan dengan hanya terhadap sebagian populasi saja (sampel).</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">menghemat tenaga </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>: pelaksanaan penelitian yang dilakukan terhadap seluruh populasi jelas akan memerlukan tenaga yang lebih banyak bila dibandingkan dengan penelitian yang hanya dilakukan terhadap sebagian saja dari populasi tersebut.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">memperluas ruang lingkup penelitian</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> : penelitian yang dilakukan terhadap seluruh obyek akan memakan waktu, tenaga, biaya dan<span> </span>fasilitas – fasilitas lain yang lebih besar.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">memperoleh hasil yang lebih akurat</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> :<span> </span>penelitian yang dilakukan terhadap populasi jelas akan menyita sumber – sumber daya yang lebih besar, termasuk usaha – usaha analisis.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr.Soekidjo Notoatmodjo.2005.Metodologi Penelitian Kesehatan.Jakarta:Rineka Cipta)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">macam-macam</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Sample yg dikehendaki : merupakan bagian populasi target yg akan diteliti secara langsung. Criteria ini meliputi subyek yg memenuhi criteria pemilihan baik inklusi maupun eksklusi.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Subyek yg benar diteliti : subyek yg benar ikut serta & diteliti, merupakan bagian dr sample yang dikehendaki dikurangi dgn drop out, pasien yg kemudian menolak berpartisipasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>(Prof.Dr.Sudigdo Sastroasmoro, Sp.A(K) & Prof.Dr.Sofyan Ismael, Sp.A(K).2008.Dasar-Dasar Metodologi Penelitian Klinis.Jakarta:CV.Sagung Seto)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>prosedur pengambilan sample</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">menentukan tujuan penelitian</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">menetukan populasi penelitian</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">menentukan jenis data</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">menetukan teknik sampling</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">menetukan besar sample</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>f.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">menetukan unit data</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>g.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">memilih sample</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr.Soekidjo Notoatmodjo.2005.Metodologi Penelitian Kesehatan.Jakarta:Rineka Cipta)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>besar sample (faktor-faktor yg mempengaruhi)</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">keragaman populasi (memperhatikan populasi yg homogen)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">presisi yg dikehendaki peneliti </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">analisis</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">memperhatikan tenaga, waktu, dan biaya</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">5. syarat</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>- homogen</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>- representatif </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>- tidak bias</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">6. teknik sampling (cara memilih) </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Probability sampling : tiap subyek dlm populasi (terjangkau) mempunyai kesempatan (peluang) yg sama utk terpilih/tdk terpilih sbg sample penelitian. Macamnya :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 49.65pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Simple random sampling : menghitung terlebih dahulu jumlah subyek dlm populasi (terjangkau) yg akan dipilih sampelnya. Kemudian tiap subyek diberi nomor & dipilih sebagian dr mereka dgn bantuan table random.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 49.65pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Systematic sampling : ditentukan bahwa dr seluruh subyek yg dpt dipilih sbg sample. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 49.65pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Stratified random sampling : rancangan ini dilakukan pd populasi yg heterogenitasnya diwarnai oleh adanya beberapa kelompok/kelas subyek, dgn batas yg jelas antar kelompok tsb.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 49.65pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Cluster random sampling : proses pengambilan sample secara acak pd kelompok individu dlm populasi yg tjd secara alamiah.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Non probability sampling : pengambilan sample yg tdk didasarkan atas kemungkinan yg dpt diperhitungkan, tetapi semata-mata hanya berdasarkan pd segi2 kepraktisan belaka. Macamnya </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Purposive sampling : didasarkan pd suatu pertimbangan tertentu yg dibuat oleh peneliti sendiri, berdasarkan cirri/sifat2 populasi yg sdh diketahui sebelumnya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Quota sampling : menetapkan sejumlah anggota sample secara quotum/jatah.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Accidental sampling : mengambil kasus/responden yg kebetulan ada atau tersedia.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr.Soekidjo Notoatmodjo.2005.Metodologi Penelitian Kesehatan.Jakarta:Rineka Cipta)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">7</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span> </span>hubungan sample dan populasi</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">- </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Sampel merupakan representasi populasi yg dijadikan sumber informasi bg semua data yang diperlukan utk menjawab permasalahan penelitian yg dihadapi.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr.Ahmad Watik P.2000.Dasar-Dasar Metodologi Penelitian Kedokteran.Jakarta:PT.Raja Grafindo Persada)</span><span lang="IN" style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Instrument penelitian</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">1. jenis</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Tes</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Tes adalah sederetan pertanyaan atau latihan atau alat lain yang digunakan untuk mengukur ketrampilan, pengukuran, inteligensi, kemampuan atau bakat yang dimiliki oleh individu atau kelompok</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -90pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;"><span>·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Kuesioner </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Kuesioner adalah sejumlah pertanyaan tertulis yang digunakan untuk memperoleh informasi dari responden dalam arti laporan tentang pribadinya, atu hal- hal yang ia ketahui. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">• Wawancara (Interview) </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Interview digunakan oleh peneliti unyuk menilai keadaan seseorang, misalnya untuk mencari data tentang variabel latar belakang murid, orang tua, pendidikan, perhatian, sikap terhadap sesuatu. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">• Observasi</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Didalam artian penelitian observasi adalah mengadakan pengamatan secara langsung, abservasi dapat dilakukan dengan tes, kuesioner, ragam gambar, dan rekaman suara. Pedoman observasi berisi sebuah daftar jenis kegiatan yang mungkin timbul dan akan diamati. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">• Skala bertingkat (ratings) </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Rating atau skala bertingkat adalah suatu ukuran subyektif yang dibuat berskala. Walaupun skala bertingkat ini menghasilkan data yang kasar, tetapi cukup memberikan informasi tertentu tentang program atau orang. Intrumen ini depat dengan mudah menberikan gambaran penampilan, terutama panampilan didalam orang menjalankan tugas, yang menjukan frekuensi munculnya sifat-sifat. Didalm menyusun skala, yang perlu diperhatikan adalah bagaimana menentukan variabel skala. Apa yang ditanyakan harus apa yang dapat diamati responden. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">• Dokumentasi </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dokumentasi, dari asal kata dokumen, yang artinya barang-barang tertulis. Didalam melaksanakan metode dokumentasi, penelitian menyelidiki benda-benda tertulis seperti buku-buku, majalah, dokumen, peraturan-peraturan, notulen rapat, dan sebagainya. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr. Ravik Karsidi, M.S PENGEMBANGAN INSTRUMEN DALAM PENELITIAN SOSIAL.2000)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">2. fungsi</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">sebagai alat pencatat informasi yang disampaikan oleh responden </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">sebagai alat untuk mengorganisasi proses wawancara dan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">sebagai alat evaluasi terhadap hasil penelitian dari staff peneliti.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr. Ravik Karsidi, M.S PENGEMBANGAN INSTRUMEN DALAM PENELITIAN SOSIAL.2000)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">3. cara penyusunan kuesioner</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Mengidentifikasi variabel-variabel penelitian</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Menjabarkan variabel tersebut menjadi sub-variabel</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Menderetkan diskriptor dari setiap indicator</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Merumuskan setiap deskriptor menjadi butir-butir instrumen</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Kisi - Kisi instrument</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr. Ravik Karsidi, M.S PENGEMBANGAN INSTRUMEN DALAM PENELITIAN SOSIAL.2000)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">4.</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> <b>hubungan reliabilitas dengan valid dalam instrument penelitian</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="nw"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Instrumen yang reliable belum tentu valid. Misalnya meteran yang putus dibagian</span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> <span class="nw">ujungnya, bila digunakan berkali – kali akan menghasilkan data yang sama (reliable) tetapi</span> <span class="nw">selalu tidak valid, karena instrument tersebut sudah rusak. Reliabilitas instrumen merupakan</span> <span class="nw">syarat untuk pengujian validitas instrument. Oleh karena itu, walaupun instrumen yang valid</span> <span class="nw">umumnya pasti reliable, tepi pengujian reliabilitas instrumen perlu dilakukan, untuk</span> <span class="nw">menambah keakuratan data.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr. Ravik Karsidi, M.S PENGEMBANGAN INSTRUMEN DALAM PENELITIAN SOSIAL.2000)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">5</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">.<b>bagaimanakah uji reliabilitas dan valid</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dgn program komputer yg mampu menguji validitas & reliabilitas kuesioner, seperti misalnya program Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Dgn cara manual :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Utk uji reliabilitas : uji ulang (test Retest), Split test, test paralel</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Utk uji validitas : dgn mencocokan kuesioner dgn tujuan penelitian, dpt pula diuji sec statistik</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr.B.Sandjaja, MSPH & Albertus Heriyanto, M.Hum.Panduan Penelitian)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Kesalahan-kesalan yg terjadi dalam pengambilan sample</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Sampling error : bila kesalahan pengumpulan data yg tjd dikarenakan oleh cara pemilihan sampel yg menyebabkan sampel yg terpilih tdk dpt mewakili populasi. Sampling error biasanya sulit utk dihindari, tetapi dpt diperkecil dgn cara menambah jumlah sampel.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><span>c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Non error sampling : </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">kesalahan yg tjd bukan krn pemilihan sampel.</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Non coverage bias : sampel yg terpilih tdk dpt dijangkau (misalnya karena lokasi sulit, ancaman keamanan besar)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Non observation bias : jika sampel terpilih menolak utk dijadikan sampel atau mereka tdk dirumah shg tdk dpt diwawancarai</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Data collection error : kesalahan dlm cara mengumpulkan data (kesalahan dlm wawancara, kesalahan pencatatan, kurang teliti dlm observasi)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Office processing error : kesalahan tjd pd saat memproses data yg sdh terkumpul</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr.B.Sandjaja, MSPH & Albertus Heriyanto, M.Hum.Panduan Penelitian)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Hal-hal apa saja yg berpengaruh pada representatif sample</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Homogenitas populasi, makin homogen distribusi atau keadaan karakter subjek dlm suatu populasi maka makin mdh dicapai representativitas sample</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Jumlah/besar sample yg dipilih, makin byk subjek yg dijadikan sampel (makin besar ukuran sample) maka makin tinggi tingkat representativitasnya</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Banyaknya karakteristik subjek yg akan dipelajari, banyaknya karakteristik akan menurunkan tingkat representativitas sample</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;"><span>v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Adekuatitas teknik pemilihan sample</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;">(Dr.Ahmad Watik P.2000.Dasar-Dasar Metodologi Penelitian Kedokteran.Jakarta:PT.Raja Grafindo Persada)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>Mizz Thinkinghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01153482142006250238noreply@blogger.com0